Xylanases are used in the pretreatment of forage crops to improve the digestibility of ruminant feeds and to facilitate composting along with glucanases, pectinases, cellulases, proteases, amylases, phytase, galactosidases, and lipases (Gilbert and Hazlewood, 1993; Polizeli et al., 2005; Juturu and Wu, 2012; Sharma and Kumar, 2013). These enzymes break down arabinoxylans in the ingredients of the feed, reducing the viscosity of the raw material (Twomey et al., 2003). The arabinoxylan found in the cell walls of grains has an anti-nutrient effect on poultry. When such components are present in soluble form, they may raise the viscosity of the ingested feed, interfering with the mobility and absorption of other components. If xylanase is added to feed containing maize and sorghum, both of which are low viscosity foods, it may improve the digestion of nutrients in the initial part of the digestive tract, resulting in a better use of energy. The joint action of the rest of the enzymes listed produces a more digestible food mixture. Young fowl and swine produce endogenous enzymes in smaller quantities compared to adults, so that food supplements containing exogenous enzymes should improve their effectiveness for livestock. Furthermore, this type of diet reduces unwanted residues in the excreta (phosphorus, nitrogen, copper, and zinc), an effect that could reduce environmental contamination (Polizeli et al., 2005).
Substantial amounts of barley, wheat, rye, and sunflower meal can only be used in broiler diets if they are supplemented with enzymes. The addition of enzymes ensures the maximum utilization of nutrients trapped inside the plant cells, while also reducing the viscosity created by nonstarch polysaccharides (NSP) in the bird's digestive tract. For ruminants, alteration in milk fat content and improvement in the productivity of beef cattle has been demonstrated by adding the enzymes beta-glucanase and xylanase to animal feed. Additionally, by including these enzymes to the total mixed feed ration or to corn silage or alfalfa hay, improved animal health has been demonstrated—especially in young animals. In pig feed, increasing levels of xylanase supplementation, up to 600 g of the commercial enzyme per ton of feed (containing 20–35% barley and 30–35% wheat), has resulted in improvement of performance, as measured by feed conversion ratio and live weight gain. Pig feeds normally contain more by-products than poultry feeds because of the overall higher digestive efficiency of the pig compared with poultry. These by-products can also be upgraded by enzyme supplementation and, in some instances, can offer higher potentials than the materials from which they are derived. The presence of noncereal feed raw materials in the complex diet (e.g., rapeseed meal, sugar beet pulp, sunflower meal) has been found to diminish the enzyme effect, as the substrates present were not degradable by the xylanase used. This implies that attention must be paid to the raw material composition of pig diets if the maximum enzyme effect is to be achieved.
Xylanases also convert hemicelluloses to sugars and, thereafter, nutrients trapped within the cell walls are released and chickens get sufficient energy from lesser feed. The barn is cleaner due to more thoroughly digested feed and the chicken waste is drier and less sticky. In addition, chicken eggs are cleaner due to a dry laying area (Garg et al., 2010). Mathlouthi et al. (2002) showed that feeding a rye-based diet to chickens reduces villus capacity for nutrient absorption and bile acid capacity for fat solubilization and emulsification.
It is known that xylanase and cellulase treatment of forages produces a better quality silage that improves the subsequent rate of plant cell wall digestion by ruminants. A formulation containing both xylanases and Lactobacillus was sprayed over silage. Xylanases present in the formulation selectively depolymerized hemicellulose-producing xylose, which was fermented to lactic acid by Lactobacillus thereby increasing the stability, digestibility, and nutritive values of the silage for digestion by cattle (Evans et al., 1995a, b).
There is a considerable amount of sugar sequestered in the xylan of plant biomass. As a result of xylanase treatment, there is increased nutritive sugar, which is useful for digestion in cows and other ruminants. It is also known that xylanase produces compounds that are the nutritive source for much ruminal microflora (Garg et al., 2010).
G.A. Hareland , F.A. Manthey , in Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition (Second Edition), 2003
Utilization of Oats
Oat is grown primarily for use as a forage crop and feed grain. Pliny, who reported on the human consumption of oat, stated in his Natural History that the Germanic tribes of the first century made 'their porridge of nothing else.' Oat later gained wide acceptance in Ireland and Scotland, where a variety of porridges were made. During the nineteenth century in America, oatmeal was sold almost exclusively in pharmacies and was suggested as a food for the infirm. In the late nineteenth century, Ferdinand Schumacher, a German immigrant, helped pioneer oatmeal into the largest selling cereal in the USA. His innovations included large-scale domestic milling, movement of oatmeal from the pharmacy to the grocery, and the development of packaging, brand names, and promotional literature.
Oat and oat products are used extensively in a variety of commercial food products. Thermal processing of oat enhances a unique flavor and aroma that contribute to utilization in cereals and baked-food products. Whole groats and steel-cut (sectioned) groats are processed into flakes. The traditional rolled oats made from whole groats are thick flakes requiring long cooking times, whereas flakes made from steel-cut groats are thinner and require shorter cooking times. Steam applied to sectioned groats produces variations of quick and instant flakes, with cooking times of less than 3–5 min. Oat flour is utilized as an ingredient in a variety of food products, and contains antioxidant activity in products likely to undergo fat oxidation during storage. Oat bran, obtained by sieving coarsely ground groats, is utilized as an ingredient in a variety of hot and cold cereals, and in baked products as breads, cookies, and muffins. The high viscosity of oatmeal makes it useful as a thickener in soups, gravies, and sauces, and a meat extender in meat loaves and patties. Processed oat hulls are used in the production of low-calorie, high-fiber baked products. Studies have shown that oat can be included in diets of celiac patients. The prolamin storage proteins, which cause the chronic condition in the intestine of celiac patients, are denatured by thermally processing the groats. In Sweden, Mill Milk Oat Drink was developed as a supplement for people who lack the ability to produce the lactase enzyme for digesting lactose found in dairy milk. Nu-trim, a thermomechanically sheared product from oat fiber, was developed for its high soluble beta-glucan content and used as a fat substitute in certain low-calorie products.
Oat has numerous industrial applications and potential for other uses. Oat starch has adhesive properties as a glue extender. Oatmeal has been used for cosmetic purposes to absorb dirt and sebaceous secretions from the skin. Oat hulls have cariostatic properties to prevent dental caries. Oat hulls have been used in the production of furfural and other derivatives as components in petroleum extractions, resins, plasticizers, insecticides, and pharmaceuticals; they may be used as a brewery filter aid; a component for making linoleum; and a component for making antiskid tire treads.
P. Vadas , J.T. Sims , in Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences, 2014
Companion crops, cover crops, green manures, and crop residues
With companion crops, such as small grain/forage crops, the small grain starts first and provides quick plant cover for the soil. Harvesting the grain leaves residues on the soil surface that, along with the growing forage crop, continue to protect the soil from rain and wind erosion. Cover crops grown during cold or dry seasons can provide soil cover during periods after harvest when soils would otherwise be left exposed. Cover crops should germinate easily, grow quickly, provide sufficient plant cover, and be hardy against weather and pests to maximize soil coverage. Green manures act as cover crops and, when plowed under, can add nutrients to soil to increase fertility for following crops and build soil organic matter content, which enhances soil structure, permeability, and aeration, all important to maximize rain infiltration and minimize surface runoff and erosion. Crop residues remaining after harvest can act as a mulch that counteracts the destructive impact of rain and wind on soils and also help retain soil moisture, enhancing yields for subsequent crops. Plowing residues under may decrease soil protection against rain and wind, but may be necessary to promote residue decomposition in some cases. Reduced or zone tillage systems (discussed below) can maintain some crop residues on the soil surface, providing erosion control benefits and also give a better seedbed and reduce pest problems for some crops relative to full no-tillage systems.
David Smith , ... Claude W. dePamphilis , in Encyclopedia of Biodiversity (Second Edition), 2001
Dodders
The economic impact of Cuscuta species is greatest in forage crops such as alfalfa and clover; however, crops like citrus, coffee, peach, litchi, flax, linseed, and other crops as well as ornamental plants all suffer from dodder attack. The most economically important dodder is Cuscuta campestris. This species attacks alfalfa and has been shown to reduce forage yield by as much as 57% over a 2-year period. It also affects Niger seed in India and many vegetable and flower crops. Of the 20 species of Cassytha, the most damaging is C. filiformis. It is distributed throughout the tropics and parasitizes a wide range of hosts. It is a problem on citrus in India and Tanzania and on Pinus massonia in China.
Mechanical control methods for Cuscuta include hand pulling, crop rotation, burning, delaying planting until after Cuscuta have germinated, or deep ploughing to reduce the seed bank. Few resistant varieties of crops are known. Chemical control methods include fumigants to eliminate the seed bank, herbicides applied to the soil to prevent seedling growth, and herbicide application after seeds have germinated to prevent establishment. Some methods of biological control have been established with insects and pathogens, but the scope of these has been limited.
I.E. Liener , in Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition (Second Edition), 2003
Mimosine
Leucaena leucephela is a tropical legume used primarily as a forage crop for feeding livestock, but its use is limited by the fact that it contains an unusual amino acid, mimosine ((10) Figure 8). This compound has an adverse effect on the growth of ruminants because bacteria can convert mimosine to 3,4-dihydroxypyridine ((11) Figure 8) which acts as a goitrogenic agent. In Hawaii, ruminants can convert greater amounts of the Leucaena before it becomes toxic than ruminants in Australia because of the presence of bacteria in the rumen capable of detoxifying mimosine. In fact, when Australian ruminants were inoculated with these organisms, they became more resistant to the toxic effects of mimosine.
Figure 8. Structure of minosine (10) and its goitrogenic metabolite, 3,4-dihydroxypyridine (11).
C.D. Khedkar , ... S.D. Kalyankar , in Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition (Second Edition), 2003
Buffalo Nutrition
Buffaloes are mostly located in countries where land, cultivated forage crops, and pastures are limited. They are mainly raised on crop residues, sometimes supplemented with green fodder or byproducts, available from the processing of cereal grains, oil seeds, fruit, and vegetables. Buffaloes are known to be good converters of poor-quality roughage into milk and meat. They are reported to have a 5% higher digestibility of crude fiber than high-yielding cows and a 4–5% higher efficiency of utilization of metabolic energy for milk production. Buffaloes can gain as much as 1 kg in weight per day in good-quality roughage and concentrates. They digest feed more efficiently than cattle, particularly when feeds are fibrous and high in lignin and cellulose.
Forages and Pastures | Perennial Forage and Pasture Crops – Establishment and Maintenance
W.J. Fulkerson , ... D.E. Hume , in Encyclopedia of Dairy Sciences (Second Edition), 2011
The major components of establishing and maintaining perennial pasture and forage crops are covered in this article, including establishment, irrigation, fertilizer application and nutrient recycling, and mechanical removal of unwanted herbage. Methods of establishing pastures including direct drilling, the effect of seeding rate on early production, tillering and competition, and the different responses of tropical and temperate species and that of grasses and legumes are discussed. There are detailed sections on nitrogen fertilizers and their effect on growth, quality, and management, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, and magnesium fertilizers, and nutrient management as it affects recycling. Examples are provided to demonstrate how to calculate removal of nutrients in hay, silage, and animal products. Pre- and postgrazing management including ways of managing unwanted pasture growth is discussed here. There is a detailed section on irrigation management including matching application to soil structure and species, frequency of irrigation, irrigation equipment, and methods of assessing soil moisture status and their relative benefits and costs. There is also a section on establishing and managing pure and mixed lucerne (alfalfa) swards.
Konnie H. Plumlee DVM, MS, Dipl ABVT, ACVIM , ... Patricia A. Talcott , in Clinical Veterinary Toxicology, 2004
Sources.
Mustards (Brassica spp.) are annual plants and forage crops grown throughout the United States. They flower early in the spring and may well be the first green plants available. Mustards usually have small yellow or white four-petaled flowers, simple leaves, and dark brown seeds.1-4
Toxicokinetics.
These plants contain S-methyl cysteine sulfoxide, which is reduced by microbial fermentation to the toxic dimethyl disulfide in the intestinal tract of monogastric animals or the rumen and then absorbed into the blood. Metabolism and absorption take less than 1 day.1,5,6
Mechanism of Action.
Dimethyl disulfide is an oxidant, and glutathione reduces its oxidative potential to erythrocytes. However, when the quantity of dimethyl disulfide exceeds the body's glutathione reserves, erythrocytes are oxidized to form Heinz bodies, resulting in hemolysis and Heinz-body anemia.1,5–9 Dimethyl disulfide delivered over longer time periods allows induction of more glutathione for the hepatic degradation of dimethyl disulfide.8
Clinical Signs.
Animals may be depressed, constipated, and hemoglobinemic. Dark-brown to reddish urine (hemoglobinuria) and pale to icteric mucous membranes may be present. If anemia is severe, affected animals have tachycardia, polypnea, and possibly cyanosis.1,2,4–7
Clinical Pathology.
The hemoglobin, number of red blood cells, and packed cell volume are significantly decreased.1,2,4–7 Heinz bodies are present in red blood cells.
Lesions.
No specific gross lesions are found. Tissues are pale, except for the kidneys, which may be dark.1,3,4
Diagnostic Testing.
The diagnosis is typically made indirectly by the presence of Brassica, evidence of consumption, and appropriate clinical signs. Dimethyl disulfide is not routinely analyzed at veterinary diagnostic laboratories.1,2
Treatment.
Treatment is mostly supportive. A transfusion may be life saving in advanced cases. Diuresis with fluids may reduce the occurrence of hemoglobin nephrosis.1,2,4
Prognosis.
The prognosis depends on the degree of anemia. The presence of hemoglobin nephrosis reduces the chance of recovery.1,2,4
CONTAMINANTS OF MILK AND DAIRY PRODUCTS | Contamination Resulting from Farm and Dairy Practices
W.J. Fischer , ... R.H. Stadler , in Encyclopedia of Dairy Sciences (Second Edition), 2011
Health Impact
The applications of modern pesticides in agriculture, on food and forage plants, practically bear no risk of significant residues in milk, a premise being strict adherence to good agricultural practice (GAP). Levels of OC pesticides, potentially contaminating milk via the environment, have been decreasing over the past decade(s) and international efforts are under way to further reduce environmental contamination. Current residue levels in milk fat do, however, reflect both past and current usage patterns. The results of surveys do not raise health concerns in developed countries.
0 Response to "Forage Based Feed Roughage That is Left Over After Harvest of Grain is Called"
Post a Comment